Модифицированные крахмалы (E1404–E1452)

Источники

1. Регуляторное

   EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS), Mortensen A, Aguilar F, Crebelli R, Di Domenico A, Dusemund B, et al. Re-evaluation of oxidised starch (E 1404), monostarch phosphate (E 1410), distarch phosphate (E 1412), phosphated distarch phosphate (E 1413), acetylated distarch phosphate (E 1414), acetylated starch (E 1420), acetylated distarch adipate (E 1422), hydroxypropyl starch (E 1440), hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate (E 1442), starch sodium octenyl succinate (E 1450), acetylated oxidised starch (E 1451) and starch aluminium octenyl succinate (E 1452) as food additives EFSA Journal, 2017.

   doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4911PubMed 32625282

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   European Food Safety Authority; requestor: European Commission.

   Результат

   Twelve modified starches authorised in the EU: E 1404 treated with sodium hypochlorite; E 1410 esterified with orthophosphoric acid, sodium or potassium orthophosphate or sodium tripolyphosphate; E 1412 cross-linked with sodium trimetaphosphate or phosphorus oxychloride; E 1413 both treatments; E 1414 cross-linked and acetylated; E 1420 acetylated; E 1422 cross-linked with adipic anhydride and acetylated; E 1440 etherified with propylene oxide; E 1442 cross-linked and hydroxypropylated; E 1450 esterified with octenylsuccinic anhydride (at most about one substituent per 50 glucose units); E 1451 oxidised and acetylated; E 1452 octenylsuccinate treated with aluminium sulfate. Table 1 lists INS numbers 1404 to 1451 for E 1404 to E 1451. Pastes are used as thickeners or gelling agents. Mintel GNPD, January 2011 to September 2016: 8.73% of 463,158 EU products labelled 'modified starches' and 0.53% with the exact E number, as Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 permits the term alone; highest shares in soft cheese desserts (57.75%), chilled desserts (41.24%) and mayonnaise (36.92%). Digestibility by digestive enzymes slightly reduced or unchanged against native starch; modified starches are not absorbed intact but hydrolysed by intestinal enzymes and fermented by the microbiota to acetic, propionic and butyric acids, which are absorbed from the colon; human in vivo ADME data only for E 1420 and E 1450; genotoxicity assessed in silico only. No treatment-related effects relevant for humans in rats fed up to 31,000 mg/kg bw per day; E 1450 up to a single 25,000 mg dose well tolerated by fasting healthy adults. No safety concern at reported uses and no need for a numerical ADI; 95th percentile of the refined brand-loyal exposure up to 3,053 mg/kg bw per day in toddlers (maximum level scenario up to 4,219 in infants; FSMP consumers up to 5,286). E 1404 to E 1451 authorised at quantum satis in almost all foods, up to 50,000 mg/kg in foods for infants and young children and 20,000 mg/kg for E 1450 in special infant formulae; E 1452 only in food supplements, up to 35,000 mg/kg.

2. Регуляторное

   Food Safety Commission of Japan (食品安全委員会). 添加物評価書 加工デンプン アセチル化アジピン酸架橋デンプン、アセチル化リン酸架橋デンプン、アセチル化酸化デンプン、オクテニルコハク酸デンプンナトリウム、酢酸デンプン、酸化デンプン、ヒドロキシプロピルデンプン、ヒドロキシプロピル化リン酸架橋デンプン、リン酸モノエステル化リン酸架橋デンプン、リン酸化デンプン及びリン酸架橋デンプンに限る。 Food Safety Commission of Japan, risk assessment report on food additives, November 2007; notified to the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare on 29 November 2007, 2007.

   https://www.fsc.go.jp/fsciis/attachedFile/download?retrievalId=kya20081030002&fileId=06_001_001

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   Food Safety Commission of Japan, a statutory risk assessor under the Food Safety Basic Act; assessment requested by the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare on 26 November 2004.

   Результат

   English gloss of the title: Risk assessment report, modified starches (limited to acetylated distarch adipate, acetylated distarch phosphate, acetylated oxidised starch, starch sodium octenyl succinate, starch acetate, oxidised starch, hydroxypropyl starch, hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate, phosphated distarch phosphate, monostarch phosphate and distarch phosphate). The 11 starches are used as thickeners, stabilisers and emulsifiers; since 1979 Japan had handled the JECFA-evaluated ones as foods, and the assessment served their designation as food additives. Evaluated as a group: no carcinogenicity, reproductive or developmental toxicity or genotoxicity; caecal and renal changes at high doses in rats also occur with unmodified starch and are rat-specific. Estimated mean intake 4.90 to 6.31 g/person/day at ages 1 to 3 years and 8.19 g/person/day from age 4. Conclusion: no safety concern when used appropriately as additives and no need to specify an ADI; risk managers should consider monitoring use in foods for infants and young children and reducing residual propylene oxide where technically feasible.

3. Независимое

   Chazelas E, Deschasaux M, Srour B, Kesse-Guyot E, Julia C, Alles B, et al. Food additives: distribution and co-occurrence in 126,000 food products of the French market Scientific Reports, 2020.

   doi:10.1038/s41598-020-60948-wPubMed 32132606

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   PhD grant from Paris 13 University (E. Chazelas); post-doctoral fellowship from the Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale (ARF201809007046, M. Deschasaux); French Ministry of Health (DGS Arrêté 29 Novembre 2019); French National Cancer Institute (INCa_14059); European Research Council (ERC CoG ADDITIVES_864219). Researchers were independent from funders. Funders had no role in the study design, the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data, the writing of the report, and the decision to submit the article for publication. Open Food Facts is a non-profit association.

   Результат

   53.8% of products contained at least one additive and 11.3% five or more. Appendix 7, products containing each additive: citric acid E 330 18,302; lecithins E 322 13,102; E 14XX modified starches 10,100; sodium carbonates E 500 8587; ascorbic acid E 300 7919; xanthan gum E 415 7327; sodium nitrite E 250 7144; diphosphates E 450 6529; pectins E 440 6504; mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids E 471 6060. Specific starches: E 1442 209, E 1422 173, E 1414 55, E 1450 30, E 1412 27, E 1420 19, E 1404 18, E 1440 5, E 1410 1. The footnote and the Discussion state that the number of products containing each specific modified starch may be underestimated because packaging often states only 'modified starch'. E 500 had the highest squared loading (0.64) in cluster 3, 'stabilizers and emulsifiers mostly used in biscuits and cakes'; sodium carbonate (E 500), diphosphates (E 450) and lecithins (E 322) co-occurred in 1667 products, mostly biscuits. The authors describe E 500, E 450, E 503 and E 422 as widely used in biscuits and cakes as acidity regulators, stabilizers and emulsifiers. Additive doses were not available.

4. Независимое

   Chazelas E, Druesne-Pecollo N, Esseddik Y, de Edelenyi FS, Agaesse C, De Sa A, et al. Exposure to food additive mixtures in 106,000 French adults from the NutriNet-Santé cohort Scientific Reports, 2021.

   doi:10.1038/s41598-021-98496-6PubMed 34608173

   Финансирование и результат

   Регистрация

   NCT03335644

   Участники

   106 489

   Финансирование

   NutriNet-Santé: Ministère de la Santé, Santé Publique France, INSERM, INRAE, CNAM and University Sorbonne Paris Nord. E. Chazelas: doctoral funding from University Sorbonne Paris Nord; C. Debras: French National Cancer Institute. Project: European Research Council (Horizon 2020, grant agreement No 864219), French National Cancer Institute (INCa_14059), French Ministry of Health (arrêté 29.11.19) and IdEx Université de Paris (ANR-18-IDEX-0001). Researchers were independent from funders; funders had no role in the study design, the collection, analysis and interpretation of data, the writing of the report, and the decision to submit the article for publication.

   Поддержка в натуральной форме

   Some of the 2677 ad hoc laboratory assays of additive doses were ordered by the consumers' association UFC Que Choisir.

   Результат

   Intakes of 90 additives were estimated from repeated 24-h records matched to brand-level composition data (OQALI, Open Food Facts, Mintel GNPD), with doses from 2677 laboratory assays, EFSA dose data by food category or Codex GSFA levels; descriptive analyses were weighted to the 2016 French census. Table 1, % consumers; median, 95th percentile and mean (SD) in mg/day; mean (SD) in mg/kg bw/day: modified starches E 14xx 91.48%; 1304.66, 4270.38, 1596.45 (1394.44); 24.33 (21.84). Citric acid E 330 91.15%; 1380.84, 6193.84, 1956.51 (2231.41); 29.84 (34.31). Lecithins E 322 86.57%; 35.36, 168.33, 53.94 (71.99); 0.83 (1.1). Xanthan gum E 415 79.74%; 303.60, 1401.31, 439.26 (508.65); 6.62 (7.62). Mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids E 471 78.07%; 101.90, 547.24, 160.8 (197.42); 2.44 (2.98). Sodium carbonates E 500 67.10%; 560.00, 4950.00, 1267.46 (1913.51); 19.62 (29.73), with median 8.51 and 95th percentile 76.73 mg/kg bw/day. The ADI column reads NA for all six. Diphosphates E 450 64.36%; 62.86, 715.67, 178.33 (308.05); 2.74 (4.67); ADI 40 mg/kg bw/day, exceeded by 0.02% of all participants and 0.03% of consumers. Additives without a specified ADI can be used quantum satis, that is with no limitations other than current good manufacturing practice. The authors state that information on the health impact of regular and cumulative intake of food additives in humans, and on effects of their mixtures, is still missing.

5. Регуляторное

   EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies (NDA). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for carbohydrates and dietary fibre EFSA Journal, 2010.

   doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1462

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   European Food Safety Authority, on request from the European Commission (Question EFSA-Q-2008-467).

   Результат

   Dietary fibre is defined as non-digestible carbohydrates plus lignin: non-starch polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, hydrocolloids such as gums, mucilages and beta-glucans), resistant oligosaccharides, resistant starch (physically enclosed starch, some raw starch granules, retrograded amylose, modified starches) and associated lignin. In cereals cellulose occurs with hemicelluloses; lignified outer layers are the predominant fibre source in whole-grain products; oats and barley contain high concentrations of water-soluble, viscous beta-glucan. The soluble/insoluble distinction is method-dependent and does not always predict physiological effects. Salivary and pancreatic amylase degrade starch mainly to maltose and oligosaccharides, brush-border disaccharidases release glucose, and glucose is absorbed by the sodium-coupled SGLT1; monosaccharide absorption is regarded as rate-limiting. GI: incremental area under the blood glucose curve over 1.5-3 h after a 50 g carbohydrate portion, as a percentage of the response to the same amount of carbohydrate from glucose or white bread in the same subject; GL = glycaemic carbohydrate x GI/100. Amylose/amylopectin ratio and gelatinisation affect GI; intact cereal grains, parboiled rice and the protein network of pasta lower it. Fibre enters the colon substantially unmodified and is fermented to short-chain fatty acids; acetate and propionate are absorbed and provide energy; butyrate is a main source of energy for the colonic mucosa. Inhibitory effects on iron, zinc and calcium absorption have been attributed to complexing compounds, notably phytic acid in cereals. Wheat bran fibre gives 5 to 6 g faecal bulk per g. Energy factor 8 kJ (2 kcal) per g fibre. Adequate intake: 25 g fibre per day for normal laxation in adults; 2 g per MJ for children from 1 year.

6. Независимое

   Vital M, Howe AC, Tiedje JM. Revealing the bacterial butyrate synthesis pathways by analyzing (meta)genomic data mBio, 2014.

   doi:10.1128/mBio.00889-14PubMed 24757212

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   Financial support was provided by the NIH Human Microbiome Project Demonstration Project (UH3 DK083993).

   Результат

   225 genomes carried a butyrate synthesis pathway. Four pathways (acetyl-CoA, glutarate, 4-aminobutyrate, lysine) converge on the conversion of crotonyl-CoA to butyryl-CoA by the butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase–electron-transferring flavoprotein complex, a step postulated to conserve energy through ferredoxin reduction. In the acetyl-CoA pathway, thiolase, β-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase and crotonase precede this step, and butyryl-CoA:acetate CoA-transferase or phosphate butyryltransferase with butyrate kinase forms butyrate. In stool metagenomes the acetyl-CoA pathway made up a mean 79.7% of butyrate pathways; for that pathway the terminal genes but and buk had median abundances of 77.2% and 21.8%. Butyrate is described as the main energy source for colonocytes.

7. Независимое

   Payen de la Garanderie M, Hasenbohler A, Dechamp N, Javaux G, Szabo de Edelenyi F, Agaësse C, et al. Food additive mixtures and type 2 diabetes incidence: Results from the NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort PLoS Medicine, 2025.

   doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004570PubMed 40198579

   Финансирование и результат

   Регистрация

   NCT03335644

   Участники

   108 643

   Наблюдение

   mean 7.7 years (SD 4.6)

   Финансирование

   NutriNet-Santé public institutions: Ministère de la Santé, Santé Publique France, INSERM, INRAE, Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers and University Sorbonne Paris Nord; European Research Council (grant agreement 864219, ADDITIVES); French National Cancer Institute (INCa_14059); French Ministry of Health (arrêté 29.11.19); IdEx Université de Paris (ANR-18-IDEX-0001); Bettencourt-Schueller Foundation Research Prize 2021; the laboratory of one author is supported by a European Research Council Starting Grant (ERC-2018-StG-804135 INVADERS) and the INSERM programme Microbiote. Researchers were independent from funders. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

   Результат

   1,131 participants were diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. Nonnegative matrix factorisation identified five additive mixtures. Mixture 2, characterised by modified starches, pectin, guar gum, carrageenan, polyphosphates, potassium sorbates, curcumin and xanthan gum (E415 loading 0.16), was associated with type 2 diabetes incidence: hazard ratio 1.08 (95% CI 1.02 to 1.15) per increment of one standard deviation of the mixture score (SD 8.0), p = 0.006. Mixture 5, dominated by additives of sweetened drinks, gave a hazard ratio of 1.13 (1.08 to 1.18), p < 0.001. Mixtures 1, 3 and 4 showed no association. Associations persisted after adjustment for each emblematic additive in turn, so no single additive drove them, and did not differ by overall diet quality. Of 28 two-by-two interactions among the eight additives of mixture 2, three suggested synergism and four antagonism at p < 0.1. Absolute risks are not reported, but S1 Appendix Table H gives cases by tertile of the mixture 2 score (column labelled participants / incident cases; the values, summing to 1,131, are cases / participants): 260 / 36,215, 406 / 36,214 and 465 / 36,214, hazard ratios 1.28 (1.09 to 1.49) and 1.26 (1.08 to 1.48) against the lowest tertile, p-trend 0.007. With the mixture 2 score residualised on modified-starch intake (Table J), the hazard ratio was 1.06 (1.00 to 1.12). The authors state that residual confounding and exposure or outcome misclassification cannot be excluded and that causality cannot be established from this single observational study.

8. Финансировано индустрией

   Wolever TMS, Maningat CC, Seib PA, Campbell JE, Jenkins AL. Cross-linked phosphorylated RS4 wheat starch reduces glucose and insulin responses after 3 days of pre-feeding in healthy adults: an acute, double-blind, randomized controlled clinical trial International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 2023.

   doi:10.1080/09637486.2023.2236809PubMed 37475127

   Финансирование и результат

   Регистрация

   NCT04820322

   Участники

   15

   Наблюдение

   two 3-day pre-feeding periods, each followed by a 2 h test meal

   Финансирование

   Funding statement in the publication not read: the publisher returned HTTP 403 and the article is absent from PubMed Central. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04820322, which lists this publication as its result, names MGP Ingredients, Inc. (industry), maker of Fibersym, as lead sponsor and Glycemic Index Laboratories, Inc. (industry) as collaborator. The registered protocol names co-author Ody Maningat, Vice-President Ingredients R&D and Chief Science Officer of MGP Ingredients, as sponsor representative, and gives the sponsor the opportunity to review the ethics application before submission.

   Результат

   Double-blind crossover: after 3 days of daily cookies with Fibersym (cross-linked phosphorylated RS4 wheat starch, 29 g fibre per day) or control cookies, a test cookie with 40 g available carbohydrate. Abstract (mean ± SEM): 0–2 h glucose iAUC, the primary endpoint, 106 ± 16 against 124 ± 16 mmol×min/L (p = 0.087); 0–90 min glucose iAUC 72 ± 9 against 87 ± 9 (p = 0.022); peak glucose 6.05 ± 0.36 against 6.57 ± 0.31 mmol/L (p = 0.017); 0–2 h insulin iAUC 189 ± 21 against 246 ± 24, printed as nmol×h/L (p = 0.020). Registry posted results (standard error): primary 106 ± 16 against 124 ± 16 (p = 0.087); post hoc 0–90 min glucose iAUC 87 ± 12 against 108 ± 13 (p = 0.023); 0–2 h insulin iAUC 189 ± 21 against 245 ± 24 pmol×h/L (p = 0.020); gastrointestinal symptoms did not differ.

9. Финансирование не установлено

   González-Bermúdez CA, López-Nicolás R, Peso-Echarri P, Frontela-Saseta C, Martínez-Graciá C. Effects of different thickening agents on infant gut microbiota Food & Function, 2018.

   doi:10.1039/c7fo01992kPubMed 29508870

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   Funding statement not read: the article is closed access and absent from PubMed Central, the publisher's full text returned an automated-access challenge (HTTP 403), and the archived copy holds only the landing page. Publisher-deposited Crossref metadata name Fundación Séneca (award 11978/PI/09) and Universidad de Murcia.

   Результат

   Batch fermentation with 1% (w/v) locust bean gum, maize hydroxypropylated distarch phosphate or pre-gelatinised rice starch. Both starches gave lower pH than locust bean gum (p < 0.01) and higher total gas production (p < 0.05); total short-chain fatty acids and propionate were higher with locust bean gum (p < 0.05). The starches induced higher Lactobacillus and Bifidobacteria at the beginning of fermentation, a sudden drop of pH and greater acetate production, which promoted a less varied faecal microbiota; locust bean gum promoted a more varied microbiota. Results read from the PubMed abstract.

10. Регуляторное

    EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings (FAF), Younes M, Aquilina G, Castle L, Engel KH, Fowler P, et al. Opinion on the re-evaluation of starch sodium octenyl succinate (E 1450) as a food additive in foods for infants below 16 weeks of age and the follow-up of its re-evaluation as a food additive for uses in foods for all population groups EFSA Journal, 2020.

    doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2020.5874PubMed 32817762

    Финансирование и результат

    Финансирование

    European Food Safety Authority; requestor: European Commission (question EFSA-Q-2018-00102).

    Результат

    JECFA had evaluated starch sodium octenyl succinate for use as an emulsifier in infant formula. Six clinical trials in infants below 16 weeks were submitted by interested business operators; none was planned to investigate the influence of E 1450 on body weight or its tolerability; five were rated tier 3 (high risk of bias) and one tier 2. A reference point could not be derived from the trials or from a 3-week piglet study, but neither clearly indicated an adverse effect. No indication for safety concern in infants below 16 weeks, or in infants above 16 weeks and young children consuming foods for special medical purposes, within the range reported in the clinical studies (up to 2,725 mg/kg bw per day); the conclusion that a numerical ADI is not needed was reiterated. For infants below 16 weeks fed special formulae, exposure at the maximum permitted level of 20,000 mg/kg was 4,000 (mean) and 5,200 (high level) mg/kg bw per day. Information on the gut microbiome specific to E 1450 was not available; changes in microbiota composition without a measured health outcome are difficult to interpret. Recommendations: revise the maximum permitted levels in food categories 13.1.5.1 and 13.1.5.2, lower the limits for sulfur dioxide, arsenic, lead and mercury, and add cadmium and microbiological criteria to the specifications.

11. Регуляторное

    US Food and Drug Administration. § 172.892 Food starch-modified Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Part 172 (Food additives permitted for direct addition to food for human consumption); electronic CFR, version of 1 October 2026, 2026.

    https://www.ecfr.gov/api/versioner/v1/full/2026-10-01/title-21.xml?part=172&section=172.892

    Финансирование и результат

    Финансирование

    US Food and Drug Administration

    Результат

    Food starch-modified may be safely used in food; the quantity of any substance used for the modification shall not exceed the amount reasonably required for the intended physical or technical effect, nor any prescribed limitation; additive containers are labelled 'food starch-modified'. Permitted treatments include oxidation with sodium hypochlorite (not more than 0.055 lb chlorine per lb dry starch); esterification with acetic anhydride or vinyl acetate (acetyl groups not more than 2.5%), adipic anhydride (not more than 0.12%) with acetic anhydride, monosodium orthophosphate (residual phosphate not more than 0.4% as phosphorus), 1-octenyl succinic anhydride (not more than 3%, or not more than 2% with aluminium sulfate not more than 2%), phosphorus oxychloride (not more than 0.1%, alone or followed by acetic anhydride not more than 8% or vinyl acetate not more than 7.5%), sodium trimetaphosphate (residual phosphate not more than 0.04% as phosphorus) or sodium tripolyphosphate with sodium trimetaphosphate (not more than 0.4%); etherification with propylene oxide (not more than 25%; residual propylene chlorohydrin not more than 5 ppm), epichlorohydrin or acrolein; phosphorus oxychloride with propylene oxide (not more than 0.1% and 10%). Source note: 42 FR 14491, 15 March 1977, last amended 66 FR 17509, 2 April 2001.

12. Регуляторное

    National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China; State Administration for Market Regulation. 食品安全国家标准 食品添加剂使用标准 (National food safety standard: Standard for uses of food additives), GB 2760—2024 National standard of the People's Republic of China, issued 8 February 2024, in force from 8 February 2025, replacing GB 2760—2014, 2024.

    https://file.jgvogel.cn/134/upload/resources/file/595476.pdf

    Финансирование и результат

    Финансирование

    Issued by the National Health Commission and the State Administration for Market Regulation; the standard carries no funding statement. The text was read in a copy hosted by a third party, as the issuing bodies' sites refused automated access; its title page, contents and Table A.1 are those of GB 2760—2024.

    Результат

    Table A.1, ascorbic acid (vitamin C), CNS 04.014, INS 300, functions flour treatment agent and antioxidant: used in various foods in appropriate amounts according to production needs (按生产需要适量使用), except the food categories numbered 1 to 5, 10 to 62 and 68 in Table A.2, which comprise milks, fermented milk, milk powder and cream, butter, fresh fruit, vegetables, fungi and algae, cereals, rice, flours and raw noodles, fresh meat, aquatic products, eggs, sugars, honey, salt, spices, infant formulae and complementary foods for infants, drinking waters, fruit and vegetable juices, tea and coffee; maximum 5.0 g/kg in peeled or pre-cut fresh fruit (04.01.01.03) and in peeled, cut or shredded vegetables (04.02.01.03), 0.2 g/kg in wheat flour (06.03.01) and 1.5 g/kg in fruit and vegetable juices (14.02.01), as ready to drink. Table A.1, sodium carbonate (碳酸钠, CNS 01.302, INS 500(i)), function acidity regulator: according to production needs in various foods except categories 1 to 30 and 33 to 68 in Table A.2, and in fermented rice products; categories 31 and 32 are raw wet and raw dry noodle products. Sodium hydrogen carbonate (碳酸氢钠, CNS 06.001, INS 500(ii)), functions raising agent, acidity regulator and stabiliser: according to production needs in various foods except categories 1 to 56 and 58 to 68 in Table A.2, and in fermented rice products; category 57 is cereal-based complementary foods for infants and young children. Sodium sesquicarbonate (碳酸氢三钠, also named 倍半碳酸钠, CNS 01.305, INS 500(iii)), function acidity regulator: according to production needs in dairy products other than listed exceptions, only goat milk, and in pastries (07.02) and biscuits (07.03). Table A.1, phospholipids (磷脂, CNS 04.010, INS 322), functions antioxidant and emulsifier: according to production needs in various foods, except the categories numbered 1 to 4, 6, 8 to 53 and 59 to 68 in Table A.2, which comprise pasteurised and sterilised milk, fermented milk, milk and cream powder, vegetable oil, animal fats, butter, fresh fruit, vegetables, fungi and algae, cereals, rice, flours and noodle products, fresh, chilled and frozen meat, aquatic products, eggs, sugars, honey, salt, spices, drinking waters, fruit and vegetable juices, wines, and tea and coffee; cream (category 5), hydrogenated vegetable oil (7) and infant formulae and complementary foods for infants (54 to 58) are not among the exceptions. Table A.1, mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids (单,双甘油脂肪酸酯, CNS 10.006, INS 471), functions emulsifier and coating agent (乳化剂、被膜剂): according to production needs in various foods, except the 59 categories numbered 1 to 4, 6 to 11, 13 to 14, 16 to 30, 32 to 53 and 59 to 68 in Table A.2; cream (5), surface-treated fresh fruit (12) and vegetables (15), raw wet noodle products (31) and infant formulae and complementary foods for infants (54 to 58) are not among the exceptions; maximum 20.0 g/kg in butter and concentrated butter (02.02.01.01), 30.0 g/kg in raw dry noodle products (06.03.02.02), 6.0 g/kg in brown sugar, raw sugar, other sugars and syrups (11.01.02) and 5.0 g/kg in spices (12.09). Table A.1, phosphoric acid and phosphates (磷酸及磷酸盐), a group entry that includes disodium dihydrogen pyrophosphate (焦磷酸二氢二钠), tetrasodium pyrophosphate (焦磷酸钠), tetrapotassium pyrophosphate (焦磷酸四钾), trisodium monohydrogen diphosphate (焦磷酸一氢三钠) and calcium acid pyrophosphate (酸式焦磷酸钙); its INS numbers include 450(i), 450(ii), 450(iii), 450(v) and 450(vii); functions water-retention agent, raising agent, acidity regulator, stabiliser, coagulant and anticaking agent (水分保持剂、膨松剂、酸度调节剂、稳定剂、凝固剂、抗结剂). Maximum levels apply singly or in combination, expressed as phosphate (PO4 3-), for example 5.0 g/kg in dairy products other than listed exceptions, 15.0 g/kg in bakery wares (07.0), 5.0 g/kg in prepared and cooked meat products, 20.0 g/kg in non-dairy creamer and compound seasonings and 80.0 g/kg in seasoning packets for instant wet noodles (12.10.01.03); in infant formulae (13.01.01, 13.01.02) and complementary foods for infants and young children (13.02), 1.0 g/kg using only calcium hydrogen phosphate and sodium dihydrogen phosphate.