Зерновые продукты, крахмал и пищевые волокна

Источники

1. Справочное издание

   Fukagawa NK, McKillop K, Pehrsson PR, Moshfegh A, Harnly J, Finley J. USDA's FoodData Central: what is it and why is it needed today? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2022.

   doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqab397PubMed 34893796

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   All authors are employed by the USDA Agricultural Research Service and have not received external support in the preparation of this manuscript.

   Результат

   FoodData Central SR Legacy entries read on 2026-10-21, per 100 g. Wheat flour, whole-grain (FDC 168893): starch 57.8 g (3 analytical data points, 56.7 to 59.8), total dietary fibre 10.7 g (7 data points, 10.0 to 12.0), carbohydrate by difference 72.0 g, protein 13.2 g, energy 340 kcal. Wheat flour, white, all-purpose, unenriched (FDC 169761): total dietary fibre 2.7 g, carbohydrate by difference 76.3 g, protein 10.3 g, energy 364 kcal; starch not reported. Rice, brown, long-grain, raw (FDC 169703): starch 72.5 g, total dietary fibre 3.6 g. Rice, white, long-grain, regular, raw, unenriched (FDC 169756): total dietary fibre 1.3 g; starch not reported. Cereals, oats, regular and quick, not fortified, dry (FDC 173904): starch 57.9 g, total dietary fibre 10.1 g.

2. Независимое

   Nichols BL, Avery S, Sen P, Swallow DM, Hahn D, Sterchi E. The maltase-glucoamylase gene: common ancestry to sucrase-isomaltase with complementary starch digestion activities Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2003.

   doi:10.1073/pnas.0237170100PubMed 12547908

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   Funded in part with federal funds from the US Department of Agriculture/Agricultural Research Service (Cooperative Agreement 58-6250-1-003 to B.L.N.) and the Swiss National Foundation (Grant 3200-052736.97 to E.S.); a student assistant was funded by a Rank Prize summer studentship.

   Результат

   Dietary starches are about 25% amylose, a linear alpha-1,4 glucan, and 75% amylopectin, whose additional alpha-1,6 links (about 4% of the total) form branches. Alpha-amylase of salivary and pancreatic secretions hydrolyses internal alpha-1,4 links and bypasses alpha-1,6 links, producing linear and branched malto-oligosaccharides, which brush-border maltase-glucoamylase (MGA, gene MGAM) and sucrase-isomaltase (SI) hydrolyse to glucose from the non-reducing ends. SI accounts for 80% of neutral maltase activity, all sucrase and almost all isomaltase activity; MGA accounts for all glucoamylase activity, 1% of isomaltase and 20% of neutral maltase activity. MGA is specific for the 95% alpha-1,4 and SI for the 5% alpha-1,6 glucose links of starch. MGAM spans about 82,000 bp at 7q34 with 48 exons, with an exon structure identical to that of SI.

3. Регуляторное

   EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies (NDA). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for carbohydrates and dietary fibre EFSA Journal, 2010.

   doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1462

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   European Food Safety Authority, on request from the European Commission (Question EFSA-Q-2008-467).

   Результат

   Dietary fibre is defined as non-digestible carbohydrates plus lignin: non-starch polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, hydrocolloids such as gums, mucilages and beta-glucans), resistant oligosaccharides, resistant starch (physically enclosed starch, some raw starch granules, retrograded amylose, modified starches) and associated lignin. In cereals cellulose occurs with hemicelluloses; lignified outer layers are the predominant fibre source in whole-grain products; oats and barley contain high concentrations of water-soluble, viscous beta-glucan. The soluble/insoluble distinction is method-dependent and does not always predict physiological effects. Salivary and pancreatic amylase degrade starch mainly to maltose and oligosaccharides, brush-border disaccharidases release glucose, and glucose is absorbed by the sodium-coupled SGLT1; monosaccharide absorption is regarded as rate-limiting. GI: incremental area under the blood glucose curve over 1.5-3 h after a 50 g carbohydrate portion, as a percentage of the response to the same amount of carbohydrate from glucose or white bread in the same subject; GL = glycaemic carbohydrate x GI/100. Amylose/amylopectin ratio and gelatinisation affect GI; intact cereal grains, parboiled rice and the protein network of pasta lower it. Fibre enters the colon substantially unmodified and is fermented to short-chain fatty acids; acetate and propionate are absorbed and provide energy; butyrate is a main source of energy for the colonic mucosa. Inhibitory effects on iron, zinc and calcium absorption have been attributed to complexing compounds, notably phytic acid in cereals. Wheat bran fibre gives 5 to 6 g faecal bulk per g. Energy factor 8 kJ (2 kcal) per g fibre. Adequate intake: 25 g fibre per day for normal laxation in adults; 2 g per MJ for children from 1 year.

4. Независимое

   Vital M, Howe AC, Tiedje JM. Revealing the bacterial butyrate synthesis pathways by analyzing (meta)genomic data mBio, 2014.

   doi:10.1128/mBio.00889-14PubMed 24757212

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   Financial support was provided by the NIH Human Microbiome Project Demonstration Project (UH3 DK083993).

   Результат

   225 genomes carried a butyrate synthesis pathway. Four pathways (acetyl-CoA, glutarate, 4-aminobutyrate, lysine) converge on the conversion of crotonyl-CoA to butyryl-CoA by the butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase–electron-transferring flavoprotein complex, a step postulated to conserve energy through ferredoxin reduction. In the acetyl-CoA pathway, thiolase, β-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase and crotonase precede this step, and butyryl-CoA:acetate CoA-transferase or phosphate butyryltransferase with butyrate kinase forms butyrate. In stool metagenomes the acetyl-CoA pathway made up a mean 79.7% of butyrate pathways; for that pathway the terminal genes but and buk had median abundances of 77.2% and 21.8%. Butyrate is described as the main energy source for colonocytes.

5. Независимое

   Sollid LM, Markussen G, Ek J, Gjerde H, Vartdal F, Thorsby E. Evidence for a primary association of celiac disease to a particular HLA-DQ alpha/beta heterodimer Journal of Experimental Medicine, 1989.

   doi:10.1084/jem.169.1.345PubMed 2909659

   Финансирование и результат

   Участники

   150

   Финансирование

   This work was supported by the Norwegian Research Council of Science and the Humanities, the Norwegian Cancer Society, and Helga Semb's Fund.

   Поддержка в натуральной форме

   The DQA1-2 oligonucleotide probe was synthesised by E. Hornes (AL Lab, Oslo).

   Результат

   DQA1-2 and DQB1-2 allele-specific probes, detecting the DQA1 gene of the DR3DQw2 and DR5DQw7 haplotypes and the DQB1 gene of the DR3DQw2 and DR7DQw2 haplotypes, both hybridised to DNA of 93 of 94 patients (98.9%) and 14 of 56 controls (25.0%). These genes, in cis on DR3DQw2 or in trans in DR5DQw7/DR7DQw2 heterozygotes, may encode the same DQ alpha/beta heterodimer. 90 of 94 patients (95.7%) were DR3-positive; the probe-negative patient was DR4/DRw6.

6. Независимое

   Arentz-Hansen H, Körner R, Molberg Ø, Quarsten H, Vader W, Kooy YM, et al. The intestinal T cell response to α-gliadin in adult celiac disease is focused on a single deamidated glutamine targeted by tissue transglutaminase Journal of Experimental Medicine, 2000.

   doi:10.1084/jem.191.4.603PubMed 10684852

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   This work is funded by research grants from the Research Council of Norway and the European Commission (BMH4-CT98-3087).

   Поддержка в натуральной форме

   Reagents and advice for production of human tissue transglutaminase from Duke University; purified natural gliadins from H. Sjöström and O. Norén.

   Результат

   The great majority of coeliac patients are HLA-DQ2-positive (DQA1*0501/DQB1*02) and the remaining few normally express HLA-DQ8 (DQA1*03/DQB1*0302); tissue transglutaminase (tTG) is also the major target of coeliac autoantibodies. Wheat gluten comprises glutenins and alcohol-soluble gliadins and has an exceptionally high glutamine content. Two overlapping DQ2-restricted α-gliadin epitopes, α-9(57-68) and α-2(62-75), stimulated intestinal T cells only after tTG converted glutamine 65 to glutamic acid or after acid/heat treatment; deamidation increased their affinity for DQ2. T cells of all 19 DQ2-positive Norwegian patients responded to one or both deamidated peptides; a T-cell line of a DQ8-positive, DQ2-negative patient responded to neither.

7. Независимое

   Reynolds A, Mann J, Cummings J, Winter N, Mete E, Te Morenga L. Carbohydrate quality and human health: a series of systematic reviews and meta-analyses The Lancet, 2019.

   doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31809-9PubMed 30638909

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   Health Research Council of New Zealand; WHO; Riddet Centre of Research Excellence; Healthier Lives National Science Challenge; Department of Medicine, University of Otago; Otago Southland Diabetes Research Trust. With the exception of WHO, the funders had no role in study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation or writing the report. The research was commissioned by WHO to inform updated recommendations on carbohydrate intake. The WHO Nutrition Guidance Expert Advisory Group specified the PICO criteria, including exposure and outcome measures, and confirmed or modified the quality judgments, but had no other involvement in the conduct or interpretation of the research. The corresponding author had full access to all the data and final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication.

   Результат

   Corrected version of 31 January 2019. Highest against lowest dietary fibre intake, prospective studies: all-cause mortality RR 0.85 (95% CI 0.79 to 0.91; 10 studies, 80,139 deaths, 12.3 million person-years), 13 fewer deaths (8 to 18) per 1000 participants over the duration of the studies; coronary heart disease incidence RR 0.76 (0.69 to 0.83), 6 fewer cases (4 to 7) per 1000; type 2 diabetes RR 0.84 (0.78 to 0.90); colorectal cancer RR 0.84 (0.78 to 0.89); GRADE moderate. Against the lowest intakes, the greatest benefits were at 25 to 29 g per day (improvement in six of seven critical outcomes); many dose-response curves were linear with no sign of a plateau. Trials, higher against lower fibre: body weight MD -0.37 kg (-0.63 to -0.11; 27 trials), total cholesterol -0.15 mmol/L (-0.22 to -0.07; 36 trials), systolic blood pressure -1.27 mm Hg (-2.50 to -0.04; 15 trials). Whole grains: all-cause mortality RR 0.81 (0.72 to 0.90), 26 fewer deaths (14 to 39) per 1000; GRADE low for most critical outcomes; trials, body weight MD -0.62 kg (-1.19 to -0.05; 11 trials). Lower against higher glycaemic index: type 2 diabetes RR 0.89 (0.82 to 0.97), GRADE very low, statistical significance not maintained in sensitivity analyses. Trials reported adiposity, glycaemia, insulin, lipids and blood pressure. Certainty graded moderate for dietary fibre, low to moderate for whole grains and low to very low for glycaemic index and glycaemic load.

8. Финансировано индустрией

   Maki KC, Palacios OM, Koecher K, Sawicki CM, Livingston KA, Bell M, et al. The relationship between whole grain intake and body weight: results of meta-analyses of observational studies and randomized controlled trials Nutrients, 2019.

   doi:10.3390/nu11061245PubMed 31159235

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   This study was funded by General Mills, Inc. (Minneapolis, MN), and the funding sponsor provided comment on study design, data collection, and results interpretation. However, the final decision for all aspects of study conduct and manuscript content were those of the authors alone.

   Результат

   Cross-sectional meta-regression: BMI -0.0141 kg/m2 per g/day of whole grain intake (95% CI -0.0207 to -0.0077; r = -0.526, p = 0.0001). RCT meta-analysis: nonsignificant pooled standardized effect size of -0.049 kg (95% CI -0.297 to 0.199; p = 0.698) for mean difference in weight change, whole grain against control, over 12 to 16 weeks; heterogeneity I2 71.5%. Trials shorter than 12 weeks were excluded and hypocaloric trials included. Of these 9 trials and the 11 whole-grain trials of Reynolds et al. (2019), which reported -0.62 kg (95% CI -1.19 to -0.05), only 2 were included in both.

9. Регуляторное

   EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of a health claim related to oat beta-glucan and lowering blood cholesterol and reduced risk of (coronary) heart disease pursuant to Article 14 of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 EFSA Journal, 2010.

   doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1885

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   European Food Safety Authority, on request from the Competent Authority of the United Kingdom following an application by CreaNutrition AG (Question EFSA-Q-2008-681). The evidence assessed was supplied by the applicant, which claimed proprietary rights and confidentiality for three unpublished studies and one unpublished meta-analysis.

   Результат

   Oat beta-glucan is a non-digestible linear glucose polymer with mixed beta-(1-4) and beta-(1-3) links in an approximate ratio of 70% to 30%, occurring naturally in oat bran. In the unpublished meta-analysis submitted by the applicant as proprietary (Whitehead 2008, MPS Research Unit, Lancaster University) of 18 studies (1080 subjects, 3 to 9 g/d, 2 to 12 weeks), total cholesterol changed by -0.34 mmol/L (95% CI -0.42 to -0.25) and LDL cholesterol by -0.28 mmol/L (-0.35 to -0.22); the fitted effect of 3 g/d was -0.21 mmol/L (-0.31 to -0.11) for LDL cholesterol. Proposed mechanism: increased small-intestinal viscosity reduces bile acid reabsorption. The Panel concluded that a cause and effect relationship is established between oat beta-glucan and lowering of blood LDL cholesterol, and that foods bearing the claim should provide at least 3 g oat beta-glucan per day. The Panel could have reached this conclusion without considering the studies claimed by the applicant as proprietary.

10. Консенсус

    Al-Toma A, Zingone F, Branchi F, Schiepatti A, Malamut G, Canova C, et al. European Society for the Study of Coeliac Disease 2025 Updated Guidelines on the Diagnosis and Management of Coeliac Disease in Adults. Part 1: Diagnostic Approach United European Gastroenterology Journal, 2025.

    doi:10.1002/ueg2.70119PubMed 40999951

    Финансирование и результат

    Финансирование

    The authors received no specific funding for this work. Development of these guidelines was not financially funded.

    Результат

    Coeliac disease is an inflammatory disorder of genetically predisposed persons triggered by an immune response to gluten, proteins of wheat, barley and rye. 90% to 95% of patients carry HLA-DQ2.5 (DQA1*05 and DQB1*02, in cis or trans); the remaining 5% to 10% carry HLA-DQ8 (DQA1*03 and DQB1*03:02) or HLA-DQ2.2; HLA risk alleles are necessary but not sufficient and confer about 35% to 40% of the genetic risk. Prevalence in western countries is about 0.7% histologically confirmed and 1% to 1.6% by serological screening. Recommendations: IgA anti-TG2 as the single initial test at any age, with total IgA, on a gluten-containing diet (moderate certainty, strong, 95% agreement); diagnosis without biopsy in adults when IgA anti-TG2 is at least 10 times the upper limit of normal (moderate certainty, conditional, 95%), confirmed in a second blood sample and, until more safety data are available, limited to patients under 45 years; HLA testing has a poor positive and a high negative predictive value, so HLA-DQ2/8 typing is not used routinely in initial diagnosis (moderate certainty, strong, 100%).

11. Независимое

    Corrado M, Savva GM, Ahn-Jarvis JH, Oyeyinka SA, Edwards CH, Hazard BA. Effect of wheat bread with elevated amylose on postprandial glycaemic response: a randomised crossover trial delivered remotely using continuous glucose monitoring Food & Function, 2025.

    doi:10.1039/d5fo03147hPubMed 41277638

    Финансирование и результат

    Регистрация

    NCT05317429

    Участники

    26

    Наблюдение

    4 hours after each of four test breakfasts

    Финансирование

    UKRI Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council: Institutional Sponsorship BB/W510701/1; Institute Strategic Programme 'Food Innovation and Health' BB/R012512/1 with BBS/E/F/000PR10343 and BBS/E/F/000PR10345; Core Capability Grant BB/CCG1860/1 to Quadram Institute Bioscience; Institute Strategic Programme Grants BBS/E/J/000PR9799 and 'Designing Future Wheat' BB/P016855/1 to the John Innes Centre. The first author's current funding: European Union Horizon 2020 Marie Skłodowska-Curie grant 101105493.

    Поддержка в натуральной форме

    ADM Milling milled the grains used to make the breads.

    Результат

    Double-blind crossover; each participant ate two rolls of each bread, both providing about 72 g total starch: sbeII mutant wheat with 43.5% amylose (available carbohydrate 61.5 g) and wild-type wheat with 27.2% amylose (64.6 g). In vitro starch digested at 90 min: 60.8% against 68.1% (p = 0.006). Primary outcome, maximum rise in interstitial glucose within 2 h: 1.73 against 1.79 mmol/L, difference -0.08 mmol/L (SE 0.12), -4.57% (p = 0.514); incremental AUC over 2 h -7.20% (p = 0.416). 17 participants preferred the wild-type bread and 4 the sbeII bread. The authors note that the test foods of earlier trials reporting lower glycaemia with high-amylose bread generally provided different amounts of available carbohydrate; they also cite lower glucose responses to high-amylose flour-blend bread against an isoglucidic control (Costabile et al.) and to amylose-rich rusks in meals matched for available carbohydrate (Vetrani et al.).