Пектины (E440)

Источники

1. Регуляторное

   EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food (ANS), Mortensen A, Aguilar F, Crebelli R, Di Domenico A, Dusemund B, et al. Re-evaluation of pectin (E 440i) and amidated pectin (E 440ii) as food additives EFSA Journal, 2017.

   doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4866PubMed 32625540

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   European Food Safety Authority; requestor: European Commission; question numbers EFSA-Q-2011-00528 and EFSA-Q-2011-00758; adopted 17 May 2017.

   Результат

   Pectin (E 440i) consists mainly of the partial methyl esters of polygalacturonic acid and their ammonium, sodium, potassium and calcium salts, extracted in aqueous medium from edible plant material, citrus peels and apple pomace being the main sources; amidated pectin (E 440ii) also contains amides, produced by treatment with ammonia, with not more than 25% of total carboxyl groups amidated. The backbone is 1,4-linked alpha-D-galacturonic acid intercalated by 2-linked L-rhamnosyl residues, with side chains mainly of galactose and arabinose. High-methoxyl pectins (more than 50% methylated) gel below about pH 3.6 with a cosolute, typically sucrose, above 55% by weight; low-methoxyl pectins gel with calcium ions. Authorised in the EU as Group I additives at quantum satis in almost all categories, not in infant formulae (13.1.1), and at 10,000 mg/kg in foods for special medical purposes for infants and young children (13.1.5.1, 13.1.5.2); jams are among the quantum satis uses, and consumers also add pectins to thicken jams. Main contributors to refined exposure: flavoured fermented milk products, flavoured drinks, processed fruit and vegetables and desserts. In 7 healthy men, 88.4% (SD 10.5%) of a 5 g dose was recovered in the terminal ileum (Saito et al., 2005); healthy volunteers excreted 3.5% (women) and 4.8% (men) of dietary pectin in faeces, ileostomy patients 85% (women) and 53% (men) (Holloway et al., 1983). Pectins are not absorbed intact but extensively fermented by intestinal microbiota; the main end products are acetic, propionic and butyric acids, absorbed from the colon; methyl ester groups are cleaved in ileostomy and colostomy fluids with release of methanol (Knaup et al., 2008). Human studies: serum cholesterol fell about 8% with 12 g/day for 3 weeks in 12 healthy men (Durrington et al., 1976) and about 5% with 15 g/day in middle-aged men (Keys et al., 1961); 36 g/day (515 mg/kg bw per day) for 6 weeks in 5 healthy men was associated with abdominal distension and increased flatus in some individuals, judged undesirable but not adverse (Cummings et al., 1979). Refined brand-loyal exposure at the 95th percentile reached 442.0 mg/kg bw per day in toddlers. The Panel concluded that there is no need for a numerical ADI and no safety concern for the general population at the reported uses; data did not allow assessment of the 1% use level in foods for special medical purposes for infants and young children. Chronic, reproductive and developmental rat studies reported to the International Pectin Producers Association by Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories lacked a control group and were judged inadequate.

2. Регуляторное

   EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Flavourings (FAF), Younes M, Aquilina G, Castle L, Engel KH, Fowler P, et al. Opinion on the re-evaluation of pectin (E 440i) and amidated pectin (E 440ii) as food additives in foods for infants below 16 weeks of age and follow-up of their re-evaluation as food additives for uses in foods for all population groups EFSA Journal, 2021.

   doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2021.6387PubMed 33537069

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   European Food Safety Authority; requestor: European Commission; question number EFSA-Q-2018-00098; adopted 15 December 2020.

   Результат

   JECFA includes pectin and amidated pectin under one designation, INS 440. For infants below 16 weeks consuming foods for special medical purposes (food category 13.1.5.1) at the maximum permitted level of 10,000 mg/kg, exposure was 2,000 mg/kg bw per day at mean (200 mL/kg bw per day) and 2,600 at high-level consumption (260 mL/kg bw per day); with the maximum industry use level of 4,170 mg/kg it was 834 and 1,084 mg/kg bw per day. Two 21-day neonatal piglet studies were at low risk of bias; the NOAEL was 1,069 mg/kg bw per day. The margin of safety was below 1 at the maximum permitted level, which the Panel considered too low. Seven clinical studies submitted by business operators were at high risk of bias and could not support the assessment. Extrapolating a release of 400 mg methanol from 10 g of 75%-methylated pectin in adults, exposure of 2,000 and 2,600 mg/kg bw per day would give 79.7 and 103.6 mg/kg bw per day of methanol in infants below 16 weeks, an exposure that could lead to adverse health effects. The Panel recommended lowering the maximum permitted level in 13.1.5.1 and 13.1.5.2 and lowering the specification limits for toxic elements. Documentation: the piglet study reports were provided by Specialised Nutrition Europe (documentation 3 and 4), which states that it represents manufacturers of infant formula; specifications data came from the International Pectin Producers Association.

3. Регуляторное

   US Food and Drug Administration. Pectins, 21 CFR 184.1588: direct food substances affirmed as generally recognized as safe Code of Federal Regulations, title 21, volume 3, section 184.1588, annual edition of 1 April 2025, 2025.

   https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-2025-title21-vol3/xml/CFR-2025-title21-vol3-sec184-1588.xml

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   US Food and Drug Administration; the text is federal regulation published by the Office of the Federal Register.

   Результат

   The pectins (CAS 9000-69-5) are complex, high molecular weight polysaccharides found in plants and composed chiefly of partially methylated polygalacturonic acid units; the section covers high-ester pectins, low-ester pectins, amidated pectins, pectinic acids and pectinates, produced commercially by extracting citrus peel, apple pomace or beet pulp with hot dilute acid (pH 1.0 to 3.5, 70 to 90 °C) and precipitating with ethanol or isopropanol or as the copper or aluminium salt. The ingredients meet the Food Chemicals Codex, 3rd edition (1981), and are used in food with no limitation other than current good manufacturing practice, as emulsifiers and as stabilizers and thickeners. Source: 48 FR 51149, 7 November 1983. The eCFR version history lists 22 November 2016 as the latest amendment date of the section, as of 20 October 2026.

4. Независимое

   Chazelas E, Deschasaux M, Srour B, Kesse-Guyot E, Julia C, Alles B, et al. Food additives: distribution and co-occurrence in 126,000 food products of the French market Scientific Reports, 2020.

   doi:10.1038/s41598-020-60948-wPubMed 32132606

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   PhD grant from Paris 13 University (E. Chazelas); post-doctoral fellowship from the Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale (ARF201809007046, M. Deschasaux); French Ministry of Health (DGS Arrêté 29 Novembre 2019); French National Cancer Institute (INCa_14059); European Research Council (ERC CoG ADDITIVES_864219). Researchers were independent from funders. Funders had no role in the study design, the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data, the writing of the report, and the decision to submit the article for publication. Open Food Facts is a non-profit association.

   Результат

   53.8% of products contained at least one additive and 11.3% five or more. Appendix 7, products containing each additive: citric acid E 330 18,302; lecithins E 322 13,102; E 14XX modified starches 10,100; sodium carbonates E 500 8587; ascorbic acid E 300 7919; xanthan gum E 415 7327; sodium nitrite E 250 7144; diphosphates E 450 6529; pectins E 440 6504; mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids E 471 6060. Specific starches: E 1442 209, E 1422 173, E 1414 55, E 1450 30, E 1412 27, E 1420 19, E 1404 18, E 1440 5, E 1410 1. The footnote and the Discussion state that the number of products containing each specific modified starch may be underestimated because packaging often states only 'modified starch'. E 500 had the highest squared loading (0.64) in cluster 3, 'stabilizers and emulsifiers mostly used in biscuits and cakes'; sodium carbonate (E 500), diphosphates (E 450) and lecithins (E 322) co-occurred in 1667 products, mostly biscuits. The authors describe E 500, E 450, E 503 and E 422 as widely used in biscuits and cakes as acidity regulators, stabilizers and emulsifiers. Additive doses were not available.

5. Независимое

   Chazelas E, Druesne-Pecollo N, Esseddik Y, de Edelenyi FS, Agaesse C, De Sa A, et al. Exposure to food additive mixtures in 106,000 French adults from the NutriNet-Santé cohort Scientific Reports, 2021.

   doi:10.1038/s41598-021-98496-6PubMed 34608173

   Финансирование и результат

   Регистрация

   NCT03335644

   Участники

   106 489

   Финансирование

   NutriNet-Santé: Ministère de la Santé, Santé Publique France, INSERM, INRAE, CNAM and University Sorbonne Paris Nord. E. Chazelas: doctoral funding from University Sorbonne Paris Nord; C. Debras: French National Cancer Institute. Project: European Research Council (Horizon 2020, grant agreement No 864219), French National Cancer Institute (INCa_14059), French Ministry of Health (arrêté 29.11.19) and IdEx Université de Paris (ANR-18-IDEX-0001). Researchers were independent from funders; funders had no role in the study design, the collection, analysis and interpretation of data, the writing of the report, and the decision to submit the article for publication.

   Поддержка в натуральной форме

   Some of the 2677 ad hoc laboratory assays of additive doses were ordered by the consumers' association UFC Que Choisir.

   Результат

   Intakes of 90 additives were estimated from repeated 24-h records matched to brand-level composition data (OQALI, Open Food Facts, Mintel GNPD), with doses from 2677 laboratory assays, EFSA dose data by food category or Codex GSFA levels; descriptive analyses were weighted to the 2016 French census. Table 1, % consumers; median, 95th percentile and mean (SD) in mg/day; mean (SD) in mg/kg bw/day: modified starches E 14xx 91.48%; 1304.66, 4270.38, 1596.45 (1394.44); 24.33 (21.84). Citric acid E 330 91.15%; 1380.84, 6193.84, 1956.51 (2231.41); 29.84 (34.31). Lecithins E 322 86.57%; 35.36, 168.33, 53.94 (71.99); 0.83 (1.1). Xanthan gum E 415 79.74%; 303.60, 1401.31, 439.26 (508.65); 6.62 (7.62). Mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids E 471 78.07%; 101.90, 547.24, 160.8 (197.42); 2.44 (2.98). Sodium carbonates E 500 67.10%; 560.00, 4950.00, 1267.46 (1913.51); 19.62 (29.73), with median 8.51 and 95th percentile 76.73 mg/kg bw/day. The ADI column reads NA for all six. Diphosphates E 450 64.36%; 62.86, 715.67, 178.33 (308.05); 2.74 (4.67); ADI 40 mg/kg bw/day, exceeded by 0.02% of all participants and 0.03% of consumers. Additives without a specified ADI can be used quantum satis, that is with no limitations other than current good manufacturing practice. The authors state that information on the health impact of regular and cumulative intake of food additives in humans, and on effects of their mixtures, is still missing.

6. Независимое

   Luis AS, Briggs J, Zhang X, Farnell B, Ndeh D, Labourel A, et al. Dietary pectic glycans are degraded by coordinated enzyme pathways in human colonic Bacteroides Nature Microbiology, 2018.

   doi:10.1038/s41564-017-0079-1PubMed 29255254

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   This work was supported in part by an Advanced Grant from the European Research Council (Grant No. 322820) awarded to H.J.G. and B.H., a Wellcome Trust Senior Investigator Award to HJG (grant No. WT097907MA), a European Union Seventh Framework Initial Training Network Programme entitled the WallTraC project (Grant Agreement number 263916) awarded to M-C.R. and H.J.G, and the Biotechnology and Biological Research Council project Ricefuel (BB/K020358/1) awarded to H.J.G.

   Результат

   Homogalacturonan (HG) comprises alpha-1,4-linked D-galacturonic acid; B. thetaiotaomicron, a human colonic bacterium, utilises all known pectin structures through polysaccharide utilisation loci. HG-derived oligosaccharides imported into the periplasm (SusC homologue BT4114 required for growth on HG) are cleaved by endo-acting polysaccharide lyases, generating 4,5-unsaturated galacturonic acid; BT4108 (GH105) removes the unsaturated residue and the exo-alpha-galacturonidase BT4123 depolymerises the products to galacturonic acid. About 70% of the human gut Bacteroidetes tested grew on HG; wild-type B. thetaiotaomicron released pectin breakdown products that supported other Bacteroides in co-culture.

7. Справочное издание

   UniProt Consortium. UniProt: the Universal Protein Knowledgebase in 2025 Nucleic Acids Research, 2025.

   doi:10.1093/nar/gkae1010PubMed 39552041

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) [HG002273]; Office of the Director, NIH OD [U24HG007822]; National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); National Institute on Aging (NIA); National Institute of General Medical Sciences (NIGMS) [R35GM141873]; National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK); National Eye Institute (NEI); National Cancer Institute (NCI); National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI); Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) [BB/T015608/1]; National Science Foundation's Directorate for Biological Sciences [BB/X002179/1]; Open Targets; Horizon 2020 - Research and Innovation Framework Programme [825575]; State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation (SERI); European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Australia. Funding for open access charge: National Institutes of Health.

   Результат

   Reviewed bacterial UniProtKB entries, release 2026_03, read through rest.uniprot.org on 2026-10-21. Pectinesterase A, PemA (P0C1A9, Dickeya dadantii), secreted, EC 3.1.1.11: [(1->4)-alpha-D-galacturonosyl methyl ester](n) + n H2O = [(1->4)-alpha-D-galacturonosyl](n) + n methanol + n H+. Endo-polygalacturonase PehA (P26509, Pectobacterium parmentieri), secreted, EC 3.2.1.15: (1,4-alpha-D-galacturonosyl)n+m + H2O = (1,4-alpha-D-galacturonosyl)n + (1,4-alpha-D-galacturonosyl)m. Alpha-galacturonidase LplD (P39130, Bacillus subtilis), EC 3.2.1.67: [(1->4)-alpha-D-galacturonosyl](n) + H2O = alpha-D-galacturonate + [(1->4)-alpha-D-galacturonosyl](n-1). Escherichia coli K-12: uronate isomerase UxaC (P0A8G3, EC 5.3.1.12), aldehydo-D-galacturonate = keto-D-tagaturonate; altronate oxidoreductase UxaB (P0A6L7, EC 1.1.1.58), D-altronate + NAD+ = keto-D-tagaturonate + NADH + H+; altronate dehydratase UxaA (P42604, EC 4.2.1.7), D-altronate = 2-dehydro-3-deoxy-D-gluconate + H2O, cofactor Fe2+ (Mn2+ can substitute); 2-dehydro-3-deoxygluconokinase KdgK (P37647, EC 2.7.1.45), 2-dehydro-3-deoxy-D-gluconate + ATP = 2-dehydro-3-deoxy-6-phospho-D-gluconate + ADP + H+; KDPG aldolase Eda (P0A955, EC 4.1.2.14), cytoplasmic, 2-dehydro-3-deoxy-6-phospho-D-gluconate = D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate + pyruvate.

8. Регуляторное

   EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition, and Allergies (NDA). Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for carbohydrates and dietary fibre EFSA Journal, 2010.

   doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1462

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   European Food Safety Authority, on request from the European Commission (Question EFSA-Q-2008-467).

   Результат

   Dietary fibre is defined as non-digestible carbohydrates plus lignin: non-starch polysaccharides (cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectins, hydrocolloids such as gums, mucilages and beta-glucans), resistant oligosaccharides, resistant starch (physically enclosed starch, some raw starch granules, retrograded amylose, modified starches) and associated lignin. In cereals cellulose occurs with hemicelluloses; lignified outer layers are the predominant fibre source in whole-grain products; oats and barley contain high concentrations of water-soluble, viscous beta-glucan. The soluble/insoluble distinction is method-dependent and does not always predict physiological effects. Salivary and pancreatic amylase degrade starch mainly to maltose and oligosaccharides, brush-border disaccharidases release glucose, and glucose is absorbed by the sodium-coupled SGLT1; monosaccharide absorption is regarded as rate-limiting. GI: incremental area under the blood glucose curve over 1.5-3 h after a 50 g carbohydrate portion, as a percentage of the response to the same amount of carbohydrate from glucose or white bread in the same subject; GL = glycaemic carbohydrate x GI/100. Amylose/amylopectin ratio and gelatinisation affect GI; intact cereal grains, parboiled rice and the protein network of pasta lower it. Fibre enters the colon substantially unmodified and is fermented to short-chain fatty acids; acetate and propionate are absorbed and provide energy; butyrate is a main source of energy for the colonic mucosa. Inhibitory effects on iron, zinc and calcium absorption have been attributed to complexing compounds, notably phytic acid in cereals. Wheat bran fibre gives 5 to 6 g faecal bulk per g. Energy factor 8 kJ (2 kcal) per g fibre. Adequate intake: 25 g fibre per day for normal laxation in adults; 2 g per MJ for children from 1 year.

9. Независимое

   Vital M, Howe AC, Tiedje JM. Revealing the bacterial butyrate synthesis pathways by analyzing (meta)genomic data mBio, 2014.

   doi:10.1128/mBio.00889-14PubMed 24757212

   Финансирование и результат

   Финансирование

   Financial support was provided by the NIH Human Microbiome Project Demonstration Project (UH3 DK083993).

   Результат

   225 genomes carried a butyrate synthesis pathway. Four pathways (acetyl-CoA, glutarate, 4-aminobutyrate, lysine) converge on the conversion of crotonyl-CoA to butyryl-CoA by the butyryl-CoA dehydrogenase–electron-transferring flavoprotein complex, a step postulated to conserve energy through ferredoxin reduction. In the acetyl-CoA pathway, thiolase, β-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase and crotonase precede this step, and butyryl-CoA:acetate CoA-transferase or phosphate butyryltransferase with butyrate kinase forms butyrate. In stool metagenomes the acetyl-CoA pathway made up a mean 79.7% of butyrate pathways; for that pathway the terminal genes but and buk had median abundances of 77.2% and 21.8%. Butyrate is described as the main energy source for colonocytes.

10. Независимое

    Payen de la Garanderie M, Hasenbohler A, Dechamp N, Javaux G, Szabo de Edelenyi F, Agaësse C, et al. Food additive mixtures and type 2 diabetes incidence: Results from the NutriNet-Santé prospective cohort PLoS Medicine, 2025.

    doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1004570PubMed 40198579

    Финансирование и результат

    Регистрация

    NCT03335644

    Участники

    108 643

    Наблюдение

    mean 7.7 years (SD 4.6)

    Финансирование

    NutriNet-Santé public institutions: Ministère de la Santé, Santé Publique France, INSERM, INRAE, Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers and University Sorbonne Paris Nord; European Research Council (grant agreement 864219, ADDITIVES); French National Cancer Institute (INCa_14059); French Ministry of Health (arrêté 29.11.19); IdEx Université de Paris (ANR-18-IDEX-0001); Bettencourt-Schueller Foundation Research Prize 2021; the laboratory of one author is supported by a European Research Council Starting Grant (ERC-2018-StG-804135 INVADERS) and the INSERM programme Microbiote. Researchers were independent from funders. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

    Результат

    1,131 participants were diagnosed with type 2 diabetes. Nonnegative matrix factorisation identified five additive mixtures. Mixture 2, characterised by modified starches, pectin, guar gum, carrageenan, polyphosphates, potassium sorbates, curcumin and xanthan gum (E415 loading 0.16), was associated with type 2 diabetes incidence: hazard ratio 1.08 (95% CI 1.02 to 1.15) per increment of one standard deviation of the mixture score (SD 8.0), p = 0.006. Mixture 5, dominated by additives of sweetened drinks, gave a hazard ratio of 1.13 (1.08 to 1.18), p < 0.001. Mixtures 1, 3 and 4 showed no association. Associations persisted after adjustment for each emblematic additive in turn, so no single additive drove them, and did not differ by overall diet quality. Of 28 two-by-two interactions among the eight additives of mixture 2, three suggested synergism and four antagonism at p < 0.1. Absolute risks are not reported, but S1 Appendix Table H gives cases by tertile of the mixture 2 score (column labelled participants / incident cases; the values, summing to 1,131, are cases / participants): 260 / 36,215, 406 / 36,214 and 465 / 36,214, hazard ratios 1.28 (1.09 to 1.49) and 1.26 (1.08 to 1.48) against the lowest tertile, p-trend 0.007. With the mixture 2 score residualised on modified-starch intake (Table J), the hazard ratio was 1.06 (1.00 to 1.12). The authors state that residual confounding and exposure or outcome misclassification cannot be excluded and that causality cannot be established from this single observational study.

11. Финансировано индустрией

    Brouns F, Theuwissen E, Adam A, Bell M, Berger A, Mensink RP. Cholesterol-lowering properties of different pectin types in mildly hyper-cholesterolemic men and women European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 2012.

    doi:10.1038/ejcn.2011.208PubMed 22190137

    Финансирование и результат

    Наблюдение

    4 weeks per period at 15 g/day; 3 weeks in a subsequent trial at 6 g/day

    Финансирование

    This study was funded by a research grant from Cargill European R&D Center (Vilvoorde, Belgium).

    Результат

    Cross-over studies with 15 g/day pectin or cellulose with food for 4 weeks: LDL cholesterol lowering was citrus pectin DE-70 = apple pectin DE-70 (7-10% reduction versus control) > apple DE-35 = citrus DE-35 > orange pulp fibre DE-70 and low-molecular-weight DE-70 > citrus DE-0. In a subsequent 3-week trial with 6 g/day, citrus DE-70 and high-molecular-weight DE-70 pectin reduced LDL cholesterol 6-7% versus control without change in total cholesterol. Numbers read in the abstract; the full text is behind a paywall.

12. Регуляторное

    EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA). Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to pectins and reduction of post-prandial glycaemic responses (ID 786), maintenance of normal blood cholesterol concentrations (ID 818) and increase in satiety leading to a reduction in energy intake (ID 4692) pursuant to Article 13(1) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 EFSA Journal, 2010.

    doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1747

    Финансирование и результат

    Финансирование

    European Food Safety Authority, on request from the European Commission (Questions EFSA-Q-2008-1573, EFSA-Q-2008-1605 and EFSA-Q-2010-00645); adopted on 9 July 2010.

    Результат

    A cause and effect relationship was established between the consumption of pectins and a reduction of post-prandial glycaemic responses; to bear the claim, at least 10 g of pectins per meal should be consumed, target population adults willing to reduce post-prandial glycaemic responses. A cause and effect relationship was established between the consumption of pectins and maintenance of normal blood cholesterol concentrations; to bear the claim, at least 6 g per day of pectins should be consumed in one or more servings, target population adults. A cause and effect relationship was not established for a sustained increase in satiety leading to a reduction in energy intake; no references were provided from which conclusions could be drawn. The cholesterol assessment rested on Brown et al. (1999): seven pectin studies, 277 subjects, mean 4.7 g per day (2.2 to 9) for a mean 34 days (28 to 42); per gram of pectins per day, total cholesterol changed by -0.07 mmol/L (95% CI -0.117 to -0.022).

13. Финансирование не установлено

    Brown L, Rosner B, Willett WW, Sacks FM. Cholesterol-lowering effects of dietary fiber: a meta-analysis The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1999.

    doi:10.1093/ajcn/69.1.30PubMed 9925120

    Финансирование и результат

    Участники

    2 990

    Наблюдение

    mean treatment 49 days (14 to 168); pectin trials mean 34 days (28 to 42)

    Финансирование

    not stated. The article gives affiliations (Harvard School of Public Health; Channing Laboratory, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School) and thanks four individuals; it carries no funding statement. PubMed lists no grant support.

    Поддержка в натуральной форме

    One unpublished trial (Beling et al, 1991) was provided by Quaker Oats, Chicago.

    Результат

    Soluble fibre at 2-10 g/day was associated with total cholesterol -0.045 mmol/L per g (95% CI -0.054 to -0.035) and LDL cholesterol -0.057 mmol/L per g (-0.070 to -0.044); the effects of soluble fibre from oat, psyllium or pectin were not significantly different; triacylglycerols and HDL cholesterol were not significantly influenced. Pectin: 7 trials, 277 subjects, mean dose 4.7 g/day (2.2 to 9.0), mean 34 days; total cholesterol -0.070 mmol/L per g (-0.117 to -0.022); LDL cholesterol, 4 trials and 117 subjects, -0.055 mmol/L per g (-0.087 to -0.022).

14. Финансирование не установлено

    Di Lorenzo C, Williams CM, Hajnal F, Valenzuela JE. Pectin delays gastric emptying and increases satiety in obese subjects Gastroenterology, 1988.

    doi:10.1016/0016-5085(88)90352-6PubMed 3169489

    Финансирование и результат

    Участники

    9

    Наблюдение

    two test days at least 48 h apart

    Финансирование

    not stated. The article gives affiliations and thanks two individuals for manuscript preparation; it carries no funding statement. PubMed lists no grant support.

    Поддержка в натуральной форме

    Highly purified human pancreatic polypeptide standard was a gift of Dr R. Chance.

    Результат

    Randomised double-blind crossover: 15 g pectin or 15 g methylcellulose added to a 250 kcal egg sandwich. Gastric half-emptying time 116.1 ± 23.1 min with pectin against 70.7 ± 17.3 min with methylcellulose (mean ± SEM, p < 0.001); residue at 120 min 49.6 ± 8.1% against 25.7 ± 9.5%. Satiety score 97.8 ± 6.8 against 74.4 ± 16.7 (p < 0.001); time to next meal 10.6 ± 5.1 h against 6 ± 2.5 h (p < 0.05). Postprandial cholecystokinin and pancreatic polypeptide did not differ.

15. Финансирование не установлено

    Sanaka M, Yamamoto T, Anjiki H, Nagasawa K, Kuyama Y. Effects of agar and pectin on gastric emptying and post-prandial glycaemic profiles in healthy human volunteers Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, 2007.

    doi:10.1111/j.1440-1681.2007.04706.xPubMed 17880369

    Финансирование и результат

    Участники

    10

    Наблюдение

    three test occasions

    Финансирование

    Not read: the publisher returned HTTP 403, the archived publisher pages show only the abstract behind a paywall, and the article is absent from PubMed Central. PubMed lists no grant support.

    Результат

    From the PubMed abstract: 10 healthy men each received three 450 kcal/500 mL test meals, fibre-free, with 2.0 g agar or with 5.2 g pectin, with a [13C]-acetate breath test and serial blood sampling. Compared with the control meal, the pectin meal prolonged the half 13CO2 excretion time (P < 0.0001) and the time to maximal 13CO2 excretion rate (P = 0.002); neither agar nor pectin affected the post-prandial glucose profile.

16. Регуляторное

    European Commission. Commission Regulation (EU) No 1129/2011 of 11 November 2011 amending Annex II to Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council by establishing a Union list of food additives Official Journal of the European Union, L 295, 12 November 2011, p. 1, 2011.

    https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2011/1129/oj

    Финансирование и результат

    Финансирование

    European Commission.

    Результат

    Annex II, Part C, Group I lists E 500 sodium carbonates with the specific maximum level quantum satis. E 500 is also listed at quantum satis in individual food categories, including soured cream butter and salt, and 'only as rising agent' in processed cereal-based foods and baby foods for infants and young children.

17. Справочное издание

    Japan Food Chemical Research Foundation. List of existing food additives Japan Food Chemical Research Foundation, English translation of the Japanese list, revision of 25 August 2025, 2025.

    https://www.ffcr.or.jp/en/tenka/list-of-existing-food-additives/list-of-existing-food-additives.html

    Финансирование и результат

    Финансирование

    not stated. The page is published by the Japan Food Chemical Research Foundation and states that it translates the Japanese list first compiled by public notice of the Minister for Health and Welfare on 16 April 1996 and since revised, the latest revision announced by the Consumer Affairs Agency.

    Результат

    Existing food additives are substances of natural origin permitted for use and distribution in Japan as an exception to the designation system of the Food Sanitation Act, because of long use in Japan; the status was set by the 1995 amendment of the Act, which made all additives subject to designation. Entry 76 of the list is xanthan gum, described as a substance composed mainly of polysaccharides obtained from the cultured solution of bacteria belonging to Xanthomonas. Five entries are lecithins: 153 vegetable lecithin, mainly lecithin from rape seeds or soybeans; 312 yolk lecithin, from egg yolk; 251 fractionated lecithin, mainly sphingomyelin, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine from vegetable or yolk lecithin; 119 enzymatically modified lecithin, mainly phosphatidylglycerol from either; and 122 enzymatically decomposed lecithin, mainly phosphatidic acid and lysolecithin from either. The revision announced by the Consumer Affairs Agency on 25 August 2025 removed 30 additives and left 327 on the list.

18. Регуляторное

    National Health Commission of the People's Republic of China; State Administration for Market Regulation. 食品安全国家标准 食品添加剂使用标准 (National food safety standard: Standard for uses of food additives), GB 2760—2024 National standard of the People's Republic of China, issued 8 February 2024, in force from 8 February 2025, replacing GB 2760—2014, 2024.

    https://file.jgvogel.cn/134/upload/resources/file/595476.pdf

    Финансирование и результат

    Финансирование

    Issued by the National Health Commission and the State Administration for Market Regulation; the standard carries no funding statement. The text was read in a copy hosted by a third party, as the issuing bodies' sites refused automated access; its title page, contents and Table A.1 are those of GB 2760—2024.

    Результат

    Table A.1, ascorbic acid (vitamin C), CNS 04.014, INS 300, functions flour treatment agent and antioxidant: used in various foods in appropriate amounts according to production needs (按生产需要适量使用), except the food categories numbered 1 to 5, 10 to 62 and 68 in Table A.2, which comprise milks, fermented milk, milk powder and cream, butter, fresh fruit, vegetables, fungi and algae, cereals, rice, flours and raw noodles, fresh meat, aquatic products, eggs, sugars, honey, salt, spices, infant formulae and complementary foods for infants, drinking waters, fruit and vegetable juices, tea and coffee; maximum 5.0 g/kg in peeled or pre-cut fresh fruit (04.01.01.03) and in peeled, cut or shredded vegetables (04.02.01.03), 0.2 g/kg in wheat flour (06.03.01) and 1.5 g/kg in fruit and vegetable juices (14.02.01), as ready to drink. Table A.1, sodium carbonate (碳酸钠, CNS 01.302, INS 500(i)), function acidity regulator: according to production needs in various foods except categories 1 to 30 and 33 to 68 in Table A.2, and in fermented rice products; categories 31 and 32 are raw wet and raw dry noodle products. Sodium hydrogen carbonate (碳酸氢钠, CNS 06.001, INS 500(ii)), functions raising agent, acidity regulator and stabiliser: according to production needs in various foods except categories 1 to 56 and 58 to 68 in Table A.2, and in fermented rice products; category 57 is cereal-based complementary foods for infants and young children. Sodium sesquicarbonate (碳酸氢三钠, also named 倍半碳酸钠, CNS 01.305, INS 500(iii)), function acidity regulator: according to production needs in dairy products other than listed exceptions, only goat milk, and in pastries (07.02) and biscuits (07.03). Table A.1, phospholipids (磷脂, CNS 04.010, INS 322), functions antioxidant and emulsifier: according to production needs in various foods, except the categories numbered 1 to 4, 6, 8 to 53 and 59 to 68 in Table A.2, which comprise pasteurised and sterilised milk, fermented milk, milk and cream powder, vegetable oil, animal fats, butter, fresh fruit, vegetables, fungi and algae, cereals, rice, flours and noodle products, fresh, chilled and frozen meat, aquatic products, eggs, sugars, honey, salt, spices, drinking waters, fruit and vegetable juices, wines, and tea and coffee; cream (category 5), hydrogenated vegetable oil (7) and infant formulae and complementary foods for infants (54 to 58) are not among the exceptions. Table A.1, mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids (单,双甘油脂肪酸酯, CNS 10.006, INS 471), functions emulsifier and coating agent (乳化剂、被膜剂): according to production needs in various foods, except the 59 categories numbered 1 to 4, 6 to 11, 13 to 14, 16 to 30, 32 to 53 and 59 to 68 in Table A.2; cream (5), surface-treated fresh fruit (12) and vegetables (15), raw wet noodle products (31) and infant formulae and complementary foods for infants (54 to 58) are not among the exceptions; maximum 20.0 g/kg in butter and concentrated butter (02.02.01.01), 30.0 g/kg in raw dry noodle products (06.03.02.02), 6.0 g/kg in brown sugar, raw sugar, other sugars and syrups (11.01.02) and 5.0 g/kg in spices (12.09). Table A.1, phosphoric acid and phosphates (磷酸及磷酸盐), a group entry that includes disodium dihydrogen pyrophosphate (焦磷酸二氢二钠), tetrasodium pyrophosphate (焦磷酸钠), tetrapotassium pyrophosphate (焦磷酸四钾), trisodium monohydrogen diphosphate (焦磷酸一氢三钠) and calcium acid pyrophosphate (酸式焦磷酸钙); its INS numbers include 450(i), 450(ii), 450(iii), 450(v) and 450(vii); functions water-retention agent, raising agent, acidity regulator, stabiliser, coagulant and anticaking agent (水分保持剂、膨松剂、酸度调节剂、稳定剂、凝固剂、抗结剂). Maximum levels apply singly or in combination, expressed as phosphate (PO4 3-), for example 5.0 g/kg in dairy products other than listed exceptions, 15.0 g/kg in bakery wares (07.0), 5.0 g/kg in prepared and cooked meat products, 20.0 g/kg in non-dairy creamer and compound seasonings and 80.0 g/kg in seasoning packets for instant wet noodles (12.10.01.03); in infant formulae (13.01.01, 13.01.02) and complementary foods for infants and young children (13.02), 1.0 g/kg using only calcium hydrogen phosphate and sodium dihydrogen phosphate.

19. Регуляторное

    European Commission. Commission Regulation (EU) 2026/196 of 28 January 2026 amending Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council as regards the use of carrageenan (E 407), locust bean gum (E 410), guar gum (E 412), gum arabic (acacia gum) (E 414), xanthan gum (E 415), pectins (E 440) and starch sodium octenyl succinate (E 1450) and Commission Regulation (EU) No 231/2012 as regards specifications for locust bean gum (E 410), guar gum (E 412), gum arabic (acacia gum) (E 414), xanthan gum (E 415), pectins (E 440) and starch sodium octenyl succinate (E 1450) Official Journal of the European Union, L series, 2026/196, 29 January 2026, 2026.

    http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2026/196/oj

    Финансирование и результат

    Финансирование

    European Commission.

    Результат

    Recital: on 29 January 2021 EFSA concluded that the use of pectins (E 440) in food categories 13.1.5.1 and 13.1.5.2 at the then authorised levels raises health risks. Annex I: in 13.1.5.1 (foods for special medical purposes intended for infants) and 13.1.5.2 (foods for special medical purposes intended for infants from four months and young children), the entry for E 440 pectins becomes 4,000 mg/kg, from birth onwards in products used in case of gastro-intestinal disorders; in 01.10 (milk-based drinks for young children) E 440 is 5,000 mg/kg, lowered proportionally when combined with E 407, E 410, E 412, E 414 or E 415. Annex II, specifications for E 440(i) pectin and E 440(ii) amidated pectin: the final product must not show residual enzyme activity; dispersible in water forming a colloidal, opalescent dispersion; arsenic not more than 0.1 mg/kg; lead not more than 0.3 mg/kg in foods for infants and young children and 1 mg/kg otherwise; mercury not more than 0.1 mg/kg; cadmium not more than 0.1 and 0.5 mg/kg; aluminium not more than 120 and 200 mg/kg; Escherichia coli absent in 10 g, with Enterobacteriaceae, Salmonella and Cronobacter criteria for dried infant products. The Regulation applies from 18 August 2026; pectins and foods lawfully placed on the market before that date may be used or marketed until stocks are exhausted or until their date of minimum durability.